¤ Indus Valley Civilization

In the year 1921-22, the archaeological excavation carried out in a site called Harappa, in present day Pakistan, brought to light the remains of an ancient city. A year later, the ruins of another ancient city of similar size and plan was discovered at Mohenjo-Daro, also in Pakistan. Surprisingly both the cities belonged to a period that corresponded to the time frame of other flourishing Civilizations of the Old World, the Egyptian, the Mesopotamian and the Chinese civilizations. Archaeologists called the Civilizations either as the Harappan Civilizations (named after the site of Harappa) or the Indus Valley Civilizations (named after the Indus River). 


¤ The Archaeological Sites Found in India After Partition

After the partition of India in 1947, thanks to the dedicated efforts of the Indian archaeologists, about 400 archaeological remains of the Indus Civilization (Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigari, Banawali, Kunal, Surkotda, Bhagwanpura, Nageswar, Kuntasi, Padri, etc.) have been found in the country. Most of these sites are located in two broad geographical regions – the region of north west Rajasthan and Haryana along the banks of the dried-up River Saraswati and the banks of Ghaggar River, and in the semi-arid tract of Saurashtra in Gujarat. Besides, the remnants of the Indus Civilization are also found as far as western Uttar Pradesh and Daimabad in northern Maharashtra. 

Similarly, during the last 50 years, about a 1000 Indus Valley sites have been discovered in Pakistan. Putting together the total number of Indus sites, discovered so far in India and Pakistan, it is amazing to see that the extension of the Civilization covers an area around 1600 kilometres from west to east, and around the same distance from north to south, which is more than twice the combined territories covered by the Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations.  


¤ The Origin of Indus Valley Civilization

According to some earlier archaeologists, the Indus Civilization had its origin outside the soil of the subcontinent. They also believed that the Civilization made its way into India from either West Asia or Central Asia in the late 3^rd millenium BC. The hypothesis was in acceptance in the academic sphere until recently when the excavation conducted at Mehergarh, a Neolithic site, located in the catchment of the Indus River in Baluchistan surprisingly revealed artefacts, corresponding to a much earlier period than the Indus Civilization.  


¤ Neolithic Site

Located on the bank of river Bolan, Mehergarh was predominantly a Neolithic site that flourished from the 7^th and 6^th millennium B.C., three millennia before the presence of the Indus Civilization. Regular excavations at the site have revealed a sequence of cultural periods; each characterised by some significant aspects of an early cultural evolution that was taking place in the northwestern part of South Asia, prior to the Indus Civilization.


¤ The Neolithic People

At the beginning, the people of Mehergarh were essentially hunters and gatherers. As reflected in the archaeological evidence, they used a variety of lithic weapons like axe, chisel, blades, scrappers, and adzes for the purpose of hunting and gathering. In the succeeding time, they domesticated animals, practiced rudimentary farming and generally led a sedentary lifestyle. The archaeologists feel that agriculture was introduced at Mehergarh through local innovation. They lived in simple multi roomed houses made of mud bricks of uniform size. They also erected a granary for storing grains. The communities of Mehergarh buried the dead bodies outside the perimeter of their houses. Before burying, the body was painted with red ochre colour and placed in a pit either in an extended position or flexed, lying on the right side. A variety of ‘grave goods’ (the rare and exotic goods offered to the deceased), ranging from necklaces of micro-beads made of steatite to others made from seashells, were offered to the deceased as a symbol of honour and respect. 

In the consequent period, Mehergarh saw the predominance of a well-developed ceramic industry and the beginning of rudimentary trade. This period also witnessed the structural activities. For instance, five narrow compartments, erected on either side of a narrow path are amongst the most remarkable relics of Mehergarh. The period has been dated to about the beginning of 5^th millennium B.C. 


¤ The Birth of Indus Valley Civilization

In the later periods, some of the earlier customs made some further progress, and the ultimate out come of this progress was the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization. According to archaeologists, in the 4^th millennium B.C., a segment of population from Mehergarh and its surrounding settlements moved into the river valleys of the Indus and the Saraswati. Likewise, another group moved into the Saurashtra region of Gujarat. 

As most of the other contemporary civilizations, the Indus Civilization thrived in three successive phases. In the beginning phase (between 3500 B.C. and 2600 B.C.), the Indus Valley lifestyle was marked by a rural culture. The period between 2600 B.C. and 2000 B.C. represented the mature phase of the civilization. In this era, a majority of the Indus Valley cities achieved considerable prosperity and many reached their zenith. After the mature phase, it was the late phase that existed between 2000 B.C. and 1500 B.C., marking the declining phase of the civilization. 


¤ Discovery of Harappan Settlements

The distinct early Harappan settlements are found at several sites located in Gujarat and Rajasthan, like Prabhas Patan and Nagwada in the Rupen River estuary of North Gujarat. The sites, occupied in 2900 B.C., manifest a picture of village life in Gujarat prior to the emergence of the ancient cities of the Indus Valley or the mature Harappa. The ceramic industry of this period is essentially plain and devoid of the classic Harappan character. At Nagwada, the excavation has led to the discovery of a cenotaph, a burial without the human remains. The ceramics unearthed from it are quite distinctive and resemble the pottery unearthed at Amri in Sindh, Pakistan, belonging to the pre-urban or the early Harappan phase. The common occurrence of similar pottery types indicates the early penetration of the people from Pakistan into Gujarat. Recent excavations carried out by the archaeologists from the Boroda based M.S. University, have revealed several new early sites in Gujarat corresponding to the early Harappan phase. In the neighbouring Rajasthan, more recently an early rural site has been excavated at Balathal, near daipur. According to radiocarbon dates, Balathal was founded around 3,800 B.C., much before the matured Harappan Civilization. The unique feature of Balathal is the massive inner fortification and the remnants of the living quarters, oriented in north-south directions. The purpose of the fortification is not known.   


¤ Well Planned Harappan Civilization

The matured Harappan Civilization, which was known for its spectacular city planning, had surpassed all other contemporary civilizations. For instance, unlike the other coexisting civilizations, where the common people lived in thatched houses, in the Indus cities, every segment of the society lived in well-built dwellings. Each Harappan City had been planned differently, and had been divided into two major units, such as the citadel and the lower town. The citadel meant for the elite of the society and in lower town lived the common men of the civilization. Within the lower town, separate sectors had been laid out for the purpose of specialised crafts, for shops and markets, and for the social gatherings. The citadel is usually marked by a series of platforms with several unique feathers, such as the great bath at Mohenjo-Daro, warehouse at Lothal, granaries at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, public buildings such as the pillared halls at Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira, stadium at Dholavira, and special purpose structures like water tank at Lothal.  

The Harappan cities were planned with neat roads and lanes, which crossed each other at right angles, creating chessboard patterns. The dwellings were well planned, often associated with open courtyards, furnished toilets, kitchens, living rooms, and a few with staircases leading to a roof terrace or an upper storey. High rise defensive walls with projections and gateways had been erected around the lower towns for the protection from the external attack and natural calamities like flood. 


¤ Objects Found During Excavation

Excavations conducted over a number of Indus sites have revealed a wide array of artefacts made from copper, bronze, gold, silver and semiprecious stone. The most common artefacts include ornaments and jewellery of gold, silver and semiprecious stones, seals and sealings of steatite and other materials depicting bulls, elephants, unicorns, tigers, crocodiles and several other animals. Besides, some intrigues mythological displays, scenes of hunting or worship also occur in the repertoire of the Indus artefacts. Some seals depict deities wearing horned tiaras and sitting in yogic (ascetic) posture, human motifs in formal cloth and peaked cap, pipal leaves, and swastika symbols. Moreover, the artefacts throw light on the social complexity and the religious belief systems that existed in the Harappan society. Some artefacts bear short inscriptions in a well-established script, which unfortunately, has not been deciphered so far. 


¤ Flourishing Art At The Time of Harappan's

The Harappan communities had expertise in making a variety of art objects. Some noteworthy findings from the Indus sites that manifest the splendid art tradition of the Harappan society include the famous Dancing Girl and the sensitively modeled Buffalo from Mohenjo-Daro, the red stone Male Torso and the black stone Dancer from Harappa, the so called Priest and Male Head from Mohenjo-Daro, a number of ivory, shell and faience figurines depicting humans and animals from various sites, the terracotta Mother Goddess and Bulls from Chanhu-Daro, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan. Amongst the most recent findings, the sculpture of a mongoose or monitor lizard and a stone image of a nude male deity from Dholavira are quite significant. 


¤ The Linking of The Trade Routes

A long distance overseas trade between the Indus cities and the cities of Mesopotamia, Failaka, Bahrain and Oman had been established through the Persian Gulf. Besides, the land routes that passed through Afghanistan and Turkmenistan had also connected the cities of different civilizations. 


¤ Marvelous Water Systems

Another remarkable aspect of the Indus cities is the evidence of the unique water harvesting system at Dholavira, located in an extreme dry region called Rann of Kachchh. Excavations at the site have revealed a large tank with steps, cut down in the bedrock. The city of Kalibangan has yielded the world’s oldest known plough field, where two crops were grown simultaneously. According to the excavator, Lothal was known for the world’s oldest unique dockyard, through which various trade commodities were transshipped to West Asia. However, according to some other archaeologists, the structure functioned as a tank, erected to make water available for domestic and municipal use. 


¤ Harappan Mortuary System

The Harappans practiced an elaborate mortuary system. The excavated remains suggest that they disposed the dead by burying the bodies in pits and large pots. A few examples also show that the Harappans cremated the dead bodies on certain rare occasions. Recent excavations at Harappa carried out by Mark Kenoyer, a well known archaeologist and specialist in Harappan studies, have yielded the remains of large human graveyards, where the human skeletons are found in association with a variety of ‘grave goods’ including gold and silver jewelry, earthen pots, agate beads, and many more.  

¤ Worship Fire As Almighty

Some archaeologists claim that fire worship was practiced at Lothal, Banawali, Kalibangan, etc., in the oval shaped mud-brick structures, that correspond to the fire alters. 

The ceramic industry of the civilization is characterised by some beautifully decorated pottery ranging from small pitchers to large storage jars. The paintings display various motifs including the geometric designs as well as fauna and flora in black against a bright red or buff background. 


¤ The Declining of Civilization

Around 2000 B.C., the civilization started to decline and by 1500 B.C., the once grand cities had been replaced by villages. According to the archaeologists, the climatic change (from semi-arid to arid) played a major factor in the decline. Some other archaeologists accord that the collapse in the economic system in the Harappan cities was the prime factor for the decline.

In the late phase, no significant relics have been found from the Indus cities, except four large bronze images, that have been discovered from Daimabad in Maharashtra. The bronze objects represent a full-drawn chariot with its driver, a rhinoceros, an elephant and a buffalo. 

Some group of archaeologists feel that the Indus people migrated to the northern plain of the River Ganges and started settling down in simple villages. Their mode of worship is reflected in the Vedic texts (ancient Hindu scriptures) and in the archaeological records as well. From an archaeological point of view, their settlements are known as Painted Gray Ware (PGW) sites (named after the main ceramic type). 

Some other groups believe that after the decline, the Indus communities migrated to the south of the Deccan and led an agro-pastoral lifestyle. They constructed large burial stones to commemorate the deceased. Archaeologically, their culture has been classified as the ‘megalithic culture’ (for more information see Archaeological Sites).